Talk:Environmental impact

The COVID-19 pandemic in Spain. First wave: from the first cases to the end of June 2020

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The COVID-19 pandemic was directly related to various environmental elements in Spain. Although it is widely accepted that humans (our mobility, the accumulation of people in urban areas, our increased longevity, the degree to which we comply with health recommendations, etc.) are the most powerful factor in the spread of the virus, it has also been proven that several atmospheric conditions served as active agents for infection. In addition, lockdown and the temporary standstill of economic activity had several positive environmental impacts, which are assessed in this chapter.

Atmospheric factors

Coronavirus is more transmissible in dry environments with high pollution levels, cold temperatures (between 5°C and 11°C) and little in the way of moving air. Conversely, geographical zones with warm temperatures (above 18°C), high relative humidity (>70%), and clean, moving air (breezes, for example) are, a priori, environments less prone to infection.

During the winter months of 2020, the amount of COVID-19 cases and fatalities worldwide were higher than in the summer months. The transmission of coronavirus, from its origin in Wuhan (China) to Europe and then to North America, did not follow the typical direction of the mid-latitude winds in the atmospheric general circulation model, what confirms that humans played a decisive role in its spread. However, it did not reach Spain until the end of February/beginning of March, a few weeks later than other European territories. This may be explained by high pressure conditions in the atmosphere, caused by a tropical maritime air mass, which brought abnormally warm temperatures and high levels of sunshine that encouraged people to spend more time outdoors.

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  Map: Surface pressure chart before the pandemic. 2020. North Atlantic. PDF. Datos.
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  Map: Upper air chart before the pandemic. 2020. North Atlantic. PDF. Datos.
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  Map: Surface pressure chart during the pandemic. 2020. North Atlantic. PDF. Datos.
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  Map: Upper air chart during the pandemic. 2020. North Atlantic. PDF. Datos.
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  Statistical graph: Monthly evolution in ultraviolet radiation in Valladolid. 2019-2020. Valladolid. PDF. Datos.
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  Statistical graph: Monthly evolution in ultraviolet radiation in València. 2019-2020. València. PDF. Datos.

During the initial phases of the pandemic, there were more infections in the north of Spain, which has colder night-time temperatures than the southern half of the country and the Mediterranean coast. It also spread more quickly in big cities, such as Madrid and Bilbao, where air quality is poorer than in less populated areas. The contrasting temperatures in February on the maps on Average February temperature 1981-2010 and Average February temperature 2020 clearly depict these facts. In March 2020, however, the previously settled atmospheric conditions gave way to instability, frequent storms and rain. Consequently, just as the state of alarm was enacted and the population went into lockdown, the unstable atmospheric conditions and reduction in human activity combined to clean the air and reduce pollution levels. Despite this, the cooler temperatures bred more favourable conditions for the spread of the virus.

The map showing figures on solar insolation in March 2020 compared to the average in March from 1981 to 2010 shows the frequency of cloudy and overcast days registered at the start of the pandemic. From May onwards, the general rise in temperatures contributed to reducing infection and helped slow the pandemic.

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  Map: Average february temperatura. 1981-2010. Spain. PDF. Datos.
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  Map: Average february temperatura. 2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.
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  Map: Average solar insolation in march. 1981-2010. Spain. PDF. Datos.
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  Map: Average solar insolation in march. 2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.

Average February temperature in Barcelona, Bilbao, Gran Canaria, Logroño, Madrid and Palma Statistical graph: Evolution in the average daily temperature in february in Barcelona. 1981-2020. Barcelona. PDF. Datos. Statistical graph: Evolution in the average daily temperature in february in Bilbao. 1981-2020. Bilbao. PDF. Datos. Statistical graph: Evolution in the average daily temperature in february in Gran Canaria. 1981-2020. Gran Canaria. PDF. Datos. Statistical graph: Evolution in the average daily temperature in february in Logroño. 1981-2020. Logroño. PDF. Datos. Statistical graph: Evolution in the average daily temperature in february in Madrid. 1981-2020. Madrid. PDF. Datos. Statistical graph: Evolution in the average daily temperature in february in Palma. 1981-2020. Palma. PDF. Datos.

Energy

Map: Evolution in the demand for electricity. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.

Map: Electricity production and year-on-year varation. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.

Statistical graph:Evolution in the demand for electricity. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.

Statistical graph: Monthly evolution in electricity production. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.

Energy is an essential and strategic resource for the socio-economic development of a country. The COVID-19 pandemic altered social behaviour, especially during the initial phases of lockdown. These changes directly impacted energy production and energy consumption in Spain in line with the rest of the European Union.

Electricity production was clearly lower (between 1 and 2 million MWh/month) from mid-March to early June 2020 (lockdown) than during the same period in 2019. Electricity production in Spain is typically at its lowest level in spring. By contrast, electricity demand is higher in winter, due to the great need for heating, industrial production and the Christmas shopping season (which is simultaneous to fewer hours of sunshine), and in summer, due to the demand for air conditioning and the influx of tourists. From July 2020 onwards, electricity production was more similar to the average figures registered in 2019, yet it stayed somewhat lower throughout the year.

The geographical distribution of the year-on-year variation (2020 vs 2019) in electricity production shows some significant facts (see the map on Electricity production and year-on-year variation), e.g. the hefty impact of the pandemic on standard consumption patterns in coastal tourist areas, where energy production fell in line with the fall in demand. Variations in production were minimal in provinces with nuclear power plants. By contrast, favourable weather conditions in 2020 enabled excellent renewable energy production (water, sun and wind); hence provinces with a higher capacity for this type of energy saw their production levels increase compared to 2019.

Petroleum product consumption in Spain clearly decreased in 2020 compared to the previous year (see the graph on the Evolution in petroleum product consumption. January-September 2019-2020). It shall be noted that the Spanish economy began to gradually recover in 2016 from the double recession back in 2008-2013, and this was reflected in the performance of energy consumption indicators in the years prior to the pandemic. However, 2020 brought a sharp halt to this recovery process. The fall was particularly steep during lockdown (from March to May), and figures for 2019 were not recovered until the end of 2020 as new waves of the virus necessitated ongoing restrictions on economic activity and on the general running of Spanish society for most of the year. The sudden halt in private travel had severe outcomes on diesel and petrol consumption, especially the former, and the fall in kerosene consumption was also striking as the sharp drop in commercial flights and tourism extended beyond the spring 2020 shutdown.

The year-on-year falls in petrol, diesel and fuel-oil consumption were remarkable throughout Spain, especially in the regions that most need to transport agri-food products, like Andalusia (Andalucía) and the Region of Valencia (Comunitat Valenciana); industrial products, like the Basque Country (Euskadi/País Vasco), Castile and León (Castilla y León) and Catalonia (Catalunya/Cataluña); and goods for trade and tourism, like the Region of Madrid (Comunidad de Madrid), Catalonia (Catalunya/Cataluña), the Region of Valencia (Comunitat Valenciana), Andalusia (Andalucía) and the Canary Islands (Canarias).

The 2019-2020 year-on-year variation in natural gas consumption was unmistakable in the regions that consume the most, i.e. Catalonia (Catalunya/Cataluña), Andalusia (Andalucía), the Region of Valencia (Comunitat Valenciana), the Basque Country (Euskadi/País Vasco) and the Region of Murcia. The decrease, as for petrol, was particularly evident during lockdown (from March to May 2020).

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  Statistical graph: Evolution in petroleum product consumption. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.
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  Map: Evolution in petrol and diesel consumption. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.
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  Map: Evolution in natural gas consumption. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.

Greenhouse gas emissions

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  Statistical graph: Evolution in greenhouse gas emissions by sector. 2000-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.
  

  Statistical graph: Evolution in greenhouse gas emissions by category. 2018-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.
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  Statistical graph: Evolution in greenhouse gas emissions and estimation of emissions without COVID-19. 2018-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.
  

  Statistical graph: Evolution in CO₂ equivalent emissions related to electricity production. 2018-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.]

One of the effects of the restrictions on mobility and on economic activity during spring 2020 was the temporary reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions recorded worldwide. The Ministry for the Ecological Transition and the Demographic Challenge (2021) estimated gross emissions of 271.5 million tonnes of CO₂ equivalent (CO₂-eq) for 2020 in the Progress of the Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory (Avance del Inventario de Emisiones de Gases de Efecto Invernadero), an overall 13.7% drop compared to 2019. Furthermore, total emissions were 6.4% lower than in 1990 and 38.6% lower than in 2005. This was the first time in the series (1990-2020) that emissions dipped below the figure for 1990. The graph on the Evolution in greenhouse gas emissions by sector shows the steady decline in emissions from 2000 to 2020 in several sectors, with three distinct turning points in 2008, 2013 and 2020, simultaneous to three economic downturns. Absorptions from the land-use sector, forestry and changes of use were estimated at 36.6 million tonnes of CO₂-eq (13.5% of the total gross emissions in the Inventory for 2020) and must be deducted from the gross amount. Therefore, net emissions in 2020 were estimated at 234.9 million tonnes of CO₂-eq, i.e. a drop of 15.2% compared to 2019.

Statistical graph: Monthly variation in greenhouse emissions. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.

The graph on the Monthly variation in greenhouse gas emissions using data from the Basque Centre for Climate Change (BC3) shows a drop in all months of the year for the 2019-2020 period. This drop was primarily due to the lessened activity of coal-fired power stations during the first few months. However, the most significant emission reductions were registered in the months when the most stringent lockdown was in force [April (-31%) and May (-22%)]. From the end of lockdown, in June, to September, the drop in emissions was less significant. On the graph depicting the evolution of emissions (2018-2020) by category (energy sources), the sharpest drop may be observed in petroleum and electricity, the latter having steadily reduced since 2018. The drop in emissions from electricity use may also be observed on the specific graph for this source. Emissions from coal use have been steadily decreasing since 2018, whilst emissions related to gas have hardly changed.

The reduction in greenhouse gas emissions registered in 2020 shall be regarded as an exception; it had a transient and minor impact on the overall levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and, therefore, on global climate. Given that what really matters from a global perspective is the cumulative effect of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the impact of a temporary reduction, such as the one registered during lockdown, is negligible. In fact, a detailed analysis of historical emission trends shows that emissions would have reduced even without COVID-19. Specifically, the study carried out by the Spanish Observatory of the Energy Transition and Climate Action (OTEA, 2020) found that whilst 71% of the reduction registered in 2020 may be attributed to the pandemic, the remaining 29% would have been achieved by simply keeping the decreasing trend recorded in recent years.

Lastly, according to data from the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), despite the pattern of decreasing emissions and the short-term effect of lockdown, carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere continued to rise in 2020, exceeding the threshold of 410 parts per million. Therefore, measures to reduce emissions in a more expedient, planned and sustained way are urgently required to keep the global temperature increase below 1.5ºC.

Air quality in Europe

Statistical graph: Monthly variation in greenhouse emissions. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.

Statistical graph: Monthly variation in greenhouse emissions. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.

Lockdown and restrictions on mobility slowed down economic activity during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic and led to a significant drop in road transport, as outlined in other chapters. To analyse the effects of this slowdown on air pollution, the European Environment Agency (EEA) monitored the average weekly and monthly concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and fine particles (PM 10 and PM 2.5), measured every hour or every day by nearly 3,000 gauging stations (EEA, 2020 and 2021). Exposure to air pollution may have adverse effects on health, and in particular people with respiratory diseases could be more vulnerable to COVID-19. Although the epidemiological research carried out to date is as yet inconclusive, all signs suggest that such exposure worsens the condition of people infected with coronavirus. What has been concluded is that a higher air quality prevented 2,190 early deaths in Europe ascribable to fine particles (PM 2.5) from 21 February to 17 May 2020 (Giani et al., 2020).

Data show that concentrations of NO₂, which are primarily bred by road transport, decreased during lockdown. However, they do not suggest a consistent reduction in the concentration of PM 2.5 particles, probably due to the different origins of this pollutant, which include fuel for heating, industrial activity, traffic and reactions with other atmospheric pollutants, such as ammonia, which is related to the use of agricultural fertilisers. Weather conditions may also contribute to decreases or increases in the concentration of pollutants and explain, in part, why reductions in air pollution are rarely homogeneous.

The graphs show the evolution of atmospheric NO₂ pollution in ten European cities between weeks 11 and 27 in 2019 and 2020. In most cases, there was a significant reduction in micrograms per cubic metre (μg / m³), which was especially remarkable in cities such as Paris (weeks 13 and 16), Milan/Milano (week 13) and Madrid (week 15).

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  Statistical graph: Monthly variation in greenhouse emissions. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.
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  Statistical graph: Monthly variation in greenhouse emissions. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.
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  Statistical graph: Monthly variation in greenhouse emissions. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.
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  Statistical graph: Monthly variation in greenhouse emissions. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.

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  Statistical graph: Monthly variation in greenhouse emissions. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.
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  Statistical graph: Monthly variation in greenhouse emissions. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.
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  Statistical graph: Monthly variation in greenhouse emissions. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.
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  Statistical graph: Monthly variation in greenhouse emissions. 2019-2020. Spain. PDF. Datos.

Noise pollution

Seismic noise Statistical graph: Evolution in seismic noise recorded by stations from the National Seismic Network. Granada. 2020. Granada. PDF. Datos. Statistical graph: Evolution in seismic noise recorded by stations from the National Seismic Network. Lorca. 2020. Lorca. PDF. Datos. The Geographic Institute of Spain monitors accelerometers placed in urban areas in the most seismically active Spanish regions. The primary purpose of these seismic stations is to record the intense ground movements caused by earthquakes. However, due to their urban locations, they may also provide accurate recordings of the cultural or anthropic seismic noise levels caused by human activity, such as traffic, industry and other causes of ground vibrations. The accelerometer records show that the average daily cultural seismic noise level drops by several decibels at the weekend. They also confirm alterations in seismic noise due to the decrease, cessation and resumption of human activities during lockdown and subsequent downscaling phases. Thus, the daily average noise level decreased during lockdown by between 1 and 7 dB, depending on the gauging station, compared to the prior reference level. Subsequently, with the gradual resumption of activity during the transition to ‘new normal life’, the cultural seismic noise progressively increased until it reached figures similar to those registered before lockdown, as shown by the daily average anthropic seismic noise levels recorded by the accelerometers in Granada and Lorca (Region of Murcia/Región de Murcia).

Wastewater pollution and water consumption

Vegetation in the city of Seville during the first wave of the pandemic

Co-authorship of the text in Spanish: Samuel Biener Camacho, Manuel Gilibert Valdés, Javier Martí Talavera, Enrique Moltó Mantero, José Ojeda Zújar, Jorge Olcina Cantos, Antonio Oliva Cañizares, Pilar Paneque Salgado, Víctor Rodríguez Galiano y Esther Sánchez Almodóvar. See the list of members engaged

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