Talk:Prehistory

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Understanding the Iberian Peninsula in the Paleolithic

Illustration: Prehistory timeline. Spain.

Map: Lower Paleolithic human and material remains. Spain. PDF. Data.

The Lower Paleolithic covers a vast period in the history of the Iberian Peninsula. As illustrated in the figure, it spanned from 1,350,000 years ago to roughly 130,000 years BC, the period which is generally considered to mark the beginning of the Middle Paleolithic. The Lower Paleolithic coincides with the geological age of both the Lower (or possibly older) and Middle Pleistocene Epochs. The Lower Pleistocene had a warm climate similar to today´s Mediterranean environment in which the regular flow of water from rivers (greater in the Atlantic watershed than in the Mediterranean watershed) deposited sediment and produced fluvial terraces. The fauna typical of this time period was similar to that of the present-day African Savannah: large mammals such as elephants, panthers, saber-tooth tigers, hippopotamus, zebras, and hyenas. The Middle Pleistocene was marked by glaciations which transformed ecosystems and gave rise to mammals such as cave bears, rhinoceros, and mammoths.

Image: Gran Dolina, archaeological site of Atapuerca (Burgos).

The oldest human fossil remains found on the Iberian Peninsula were discovered in sima del Elefante (in the archaeological site of Atapuerca, Burgos), in the form of a jawbone from an undetermined hominid dating from 1,200,000 years ago. If the fossil were of Homo habilis origin, it might have arrived on the Iberian Peninsula by way of the Strait of Gibraltar. Another hypothesis is that the fossil could belong to a new species called Homo antecessor, which may have possibly evolved from individuals of Homo erectus and settled on the Iberian Peninsula (at Gran Dolina, TD6, Atapuerca) around 800,000 years ago, after having migrated from Asia. However, it is important to note that fossilised human remains of, as yet, undetermined origin have also been unearthed at Venta Micena in Orce (Granada) and in cueva Victoria, in Cartagena (Murcia).
Two subsequent species emerged and lived together in the Iberian Peninsula: Homo neanderthalensis, which marked the beginning of the Middle Paleolithic, and Homo heidelbergensis. Neanderthal remains found in El Sidrón, in Piloña (Asturias) witness their presence and are of particular significance. It should be mentioned that prior to this finding, around 28 individuals (a relatively large number) were discovered in sima de los Huesos at Atapuerca, making up more than 85% of the world´s recorded fossils of the primitive neanderthalensis species. These remains were initially thought to be Devisovan, a species that predated neanderthalensis. Since the massive presence of individuals at Atapuerca does not appear to be a coincidence, but rather a burial site, it is believed that there existed some degree of religious practice. Neanderthals formed small nomadic tribes and harnessed the use of fire, perhaps without mastery. They lived out in the open air, sometimes at the mouths of caves, and when not scavenging, led a hunter-gatherer lifestyle; and appear to have even engaged in cannibalism.
The defining characteristic of these hominids placing them in the genus Homo is their ability to make tools. Initially, they made stone tools, typically of flint and quartzite, shaped and sharpened on only one surface (using stone tool technology). And later, tools were made by shaping both sides of the stone, forming bifacial preforms typical of Acheulean technology. The early tools, which were bulky and heavy and made in situ, were abandoned as soon as hunted animals were cut and skinned, whereas bifacial tools were typically kept for future use, as they were more versatile and difficult to produce.

Map: Middle Paleolithic human and material remains. Spain. PDF. Data.

The Middle Paleolithic, which began approximately 130,000 years BC, coincided with the widespread presence of Homo neanderthalensis.
Homo neanderthalensis had a cranium size of 1,450 cm3, slightly larger than modern man. Their bodies had a similar average stature of 1,70 cm, although stockier and perhaps with shorter limbs. Their presence coincided with the cold climate of the Würm glaciation, which precipitated the taking of refuge in caves. The most significant enclaves were found in cueva de las Grajas, in Archidona (Málaga), dating from roughly 200,000 years ago and cueva de Nerja, where the Neanderthals subsequently created the earliest known cave paintings about 40,000 years ago as well as at the sima de las Palomas de Cabezo Gordo (Murcia) site.
The two most prominent settlements established on the Iberian Peninsula were at the already mentioned cueva del Sidrón in Piloña (Asturias) and at Calvero de la Higuera in Pinilla del Valle (Madrid). At the former site, remnants were unearthed of about 13 individuals (the best collection in Spain) who lived 43,000 years ago. At the latter site, in addition to an extensive assemblage of fauna fossils, which even included unknown species such as the so-called “whistling hare”, Neanderthal remains were uncovered in what is believed to be the oldest known burial site. The remains were of a young girl with red hair, which appears to be consistent with most of her congeners. There is also clear evidence of burial sites in cueva Morín in Villaescusa (Cantabria).
Despite the controversy surrounding the coexistence and interbreeding of Neanderthals and Homo sapiens, recent studies of cueva de la Güelga in Cangas de Onís (Asturias) reveal clear evidence of such activity from roughly 40,000 years ago. There is no debate about whether the Neanderthals engaged in cannibalism as remnants at both Sidrón archeological site and cueva del Boquete de Zafarralla (Málaga) indicate. With regard to interbreeding, an exhaustive study of DNA from the remains recovered at cueva del Sidrón, suggests that their blood was compatible with that of Homo sapiens.
The Neanderthals manufactured tools using an innovative technology known as the Levallois technique. Since it came from the Mousterian tool culture, this period is referred to as the Mousterian era. At this time, Neanderthals were no longer just using stone cores, but were intentionally engineering them with retouches and grooves to obtain flakes of different shapes for scrapers, cleavers, denticulate saws and spear points, which they attached to a shaft to be used for specific tasks. This expertise in tool making was an adaptation to the necessities of survival. Neanderthals continued to lead a predatory way of life as hunter-gatherers, but the harsh climatic conditions of the glacial environment compelled them to craft better clothing and look for more effective ways to stockpile food. It is generally agreed that the Neanderthals’ two greatest achievements were mastery of the art of fire making and the use of spoken language, albeit a less complex form than that of modern humans.
In the majority of settlements, where human remains have been observed, lithic remnants have also been uncovered; however, the reverse case is not necessarily true. For example, the multiple artefacts discovered at Atapuerca can be only attributed to the Neanderthals; however, actual (skeletal) fossil remains of this hominid group have not been found at this site. Such findings hinder the study of evolutionary changes.

Map: Upper Paleolithic Human and material remains. Spain. PDF. Data.

The Upper Paleolithic, which coincided with the end of the Upper Pleistocene, saw the evolutionary rise of a new species called Homo sapiens starting in approximately 40,000 BC. The end of the Upper Pleistocene on the Iberian Peninsula took place around 12,000 to 10,000 BC, which was followed by a new epoch called the Neolithic, also known as the Holocene on the geological time scale.
Homo sapiens are a species that originated in Africa. The earliest human fossils found on the Iberian Peninsula date from roughly 35,000 years ago (Cova Gran, Lleida)and were unearthed from settlements sited along rivers. For some time, Homo sapiens coexisted with Neanderthals, eventually replacing them as their populations declined. The fact that this occurred despite the Neanderthal´s larger brain capacity has elicited explanations that are the subject of much speculation. It is known that Homo sapiens were able to survive the glacial periods that led many species on the European continent to extinction. A diverse diet consisting of game, collected fruit, small fish such as salmon and trout, and molluscs may have contributed to their survival.
Homo sapiens are a modern and very refined hominid whose tools reveal a new stage in evolution. Referred to as microliths and multilayered tools, they were smaller in size and similar to knives. They also made use of new materials such as wood, bone, antler, ivory and shells. In addition to cave paintings, decorative objects such as necklaces also appeared.
The early sapiens were clearly creative beings. They made music: flutes were found at La Güelga in Cangas del Onís (Asturias) and El Castillo in Puente Viesgo (Cantabria), and built very advanced contraptions like grinders to pulverize vegetables and obtain grains. They created organised social hierarchies, as suggested by the use of power connoting accessories like staffs. And they were fond of art as shown by such unique sculptures as the Venus figurines. They engineered new tools such as harpoons and short spears, which indicate a gradual diversification of hunting and fishing methods and expanded the array of animals they hunted for food. Such tools may also have been developed in response to violent encounters among competing factions.
Though more organised and numerous than their ancestors at this point, they were still nomads, who periodically lived in caves. Vestiges of huts were found near the coasts and at the mouths of rivers where they dwelt. Burial sites bearing funerary objects were now ubiquitous, suggesting possession of the capacity to think symbolically and a belief in an afterlife. Corpses sprinkled with ochre powder have been found, and sometimes accompanied by traces of flower pollen, a combination which may have been a sign of family or emotional bonds. The existence of sea shells in excavation sites in the Manzanares river basin suggests they travelled long distances and traded objects.

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Artistic expression in the Upper Paleolithic Map: Paleolithic art. Spain. PDF. Data. There is much debate about whether to attribute the earliest development of artistic expression solely to Homo sapiens based on the fact that its emergence coincided with their existence, and there is also similar debate with respect to the Paleolithic. Since Neanderthals were also present at this time, they may have been responsible for some of these works, and previous works; possible examples include: El Castillo (a red disc and hand figures), Tito Bustillo (some remains), Altamira (a claviform symbol), and cueva de Nerja with seal paintings (from possibly 42,000 years ago). Nevertheless, the earliest substantiated evidence of sapiens artistic expression, known as the Franco-Cantabrian style, is from the great Nordpeninsular and Nordpyrenean complexes. Works were also found in other areas such as Pileta, Maltravieso and Siega Verde. Animal figures such as bison, horses and fallow deer, and rarely humans, were the protagonists of these paintings. The images, made with continuous lines and usually pigmented with ochre or black from iron oxide or manganese, were created in the backs of caves, perhaps to create a magical effect. They used the irregularities in the stone to give volume to and enhance the naturalism of the images. Very few portable art exist from this prehistoric time such pendants (made from stone, bone, shells, or teeth), weapons (such as harpoons and spears), or objects connoting power (canes from Caballón and Castillo), although the 6,000 engravings on the limestone caves of Cova del Parpalló make up the largest collection of art in Europe from this era.

Co-authorship of the text in Spanish: María Sánchez Agustí, José Antonio Álvarez Castrillón, Mercedes de la Calle Carracedo, Daniel Galván Desvaux, Joaquín García Andrés, Isidoro González Gallego, Montserrat León Guerrero, Esther López Torres, Carlos Lozano Ruiz, Ignacio Martín Jiménez, Rosendo Martínez Rodríguez, Rafael de Miguel González. See the list of members engaged

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The Neolithic slowly unfolds

Scientists do not agree as to whether this was the beginning or the end of an epoch. As the Holocene began, the interglacial period that is believed to be taking place today was already under way. The Sapiens were adapting quickly to a more temperate climate and vegetative landscape as well as to the availability of more desirable animals for hunting. Communities were becoming more specialised in exploiting a variety of available resources, leading to improvements in hunting, gathering, fishing and shellfishing. Some historians believe that the Paleolithic Period was coming to a close and refer to this time period as the Epi-Paleolithic. However, other historians consider this to be the beginning of a new era starting roughly 12,000 BC, describing it as the Mesolithic Period, which was then proceeded imperceptibly by the Neolithic.

Map: The Neolithic. Spain. PDF. Data.

A plethora of technologically advanced tools and contraptions such as harpoons, spears, sickles, saws, arrows, knives, and darts have been found, which they crafted in response to forces necessitating new ways of subsistence. Stones were finely burnished to be fashioned as useful tools and microliths embedded in polished wooden handles were made with an angular shape suitable for cutting, scraping, and penetrating their prey; samples of small painted rocks depicting this phenomenon have been discovered in some sites.
Evidence in three different regions has led to the identification of what has come to define the Neolithic period: a sedentary lifestyle, albeit initially tentative and seasonally dependant. From the Pyrenees (Mas d´Azil site in France) and extending to the entire septentrion, the Azilian cultures predominated, particularly the Asturian culture. This civilisation can be characterised by their tools, such as the "Asturian pick", and shell fishing lifestyle, as evidenced by an accumulation of seashells, named "concheros". On the East coast and stretching inland to the Ebro Valley, farming communities appeared along with microlayered and geometric tools. And on the Atlantic coast and reaching to the Algarve, there is evidence of wetland mollusc collecting and man-made huts, suggesting a flourishing coastal maritime lifestyle.
The arrival of the Neolithic, a time period measured in milennia, signalled the transition from a hunter-gatherer to a progressively agrarian and ranching lifestyle with permanent dwellings. This monumental, evolutionary change began with formation of the largest rivers in Asia and the Nile in Africa caused by climate change during the Holocene. This extensive period marked such a significant transformation in human history that in order to characterise it appropriately, it is referred to as the "Neolithic Revolution". With this change, came a sedentary lifestyle, architecture, social hierarchies, religions, and technological innovations.
According to diffusion theories, these lifestyle changes were brought to the Iberian Peninsula from the Eastern Mediterranean. However, to adherents of autochthonous theories, the changes occurred naturally in response to the evolution of the Mesolithic on the Iberian Peninsula. One theory asserts that there were four regions along the Peninsula: Northeast Area, Levantine Area, Southern Area and South Atlantic Area, as can be seen on The Neolithic map. Another theory suggests it had logically spread throughout the entire Iberian Peninsula. History tells us that even when a theory becomes difficult to dispute, other theories cannot be ruled out.

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  Map: The megalithic phenomenon. Spain. PDF. Data.
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  Map: Recent Chalcolithic. Regional varieties of the Bell-Shaped culture. Spain. PDF. Data.
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  Image: Ancient Iberian Bronze coin. Museo Nacional d´Art de Catalunya, Barcelona.

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Artistic expression from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic Map: Levantine and schematic rock art. Spain. PDF. Data. It was not until 12,000-10,000 BC, that Homo sapiens realised their full artistic potential. Evidence of this resides on the East coast of the Iberian Peninsula where more modest, schematic and stylised paintings than those from the Palaeolithic were developed. As contours of discontinuous lines, the figures lack interior polychromy and are smaller in size. Human beings and animals on which they preyed were the centre piece of the art, often depicted in motion and in scenes that tell a story. These paintings were now displayed in rock shelter rather than caves, undoubtedly reflecting the change to a sedentary lifestyle. Well-preserved examples of such art can be found at the Cogull, Valltorta, and Alpera sites as well as in cueva de la Araña. Like the art in the Franco-Cantabrian region, these images were found on parietal walls throughout the Peninsula, frequently comingled with paintings and engravings from later periods. They were concentrated in three large areas: the Galician-Portuguese region, the south, and most commonly, along the East coast, so prevalent in this area that it is often referred to as “Levantine Art”. Characterised by their labyrinth-shaped designs, the petroglyphs in the north and northweast are also worth mentioning, particularly those at Mogor in Marín and the anthropomorphic Ídolo de Peña Tú in Asturias. Engravings and paintings of these types represent a way of communicating that was perhaps a precursor to the first pictograms.

The beginning of the use of copper In the beginning of the Third Millennium BC, the use of copper, a new raw material, was becoming widespread throughout Europe. It was relatively abundant on the Peninsula and could be extracted from the ground. This sparked the beginning of the Chalcolithic or Copper Age, the first of the traditionally recognised Metal Ages. Awls, hooks, flat axes, knives, daggers, halberds, personalised adornments made from copper appeared. Bone and stone were gradually replaced by copper, which led to new manufacturing techniques as well as new ways of living. Fortified settlements were now being constructed high up on plateaus. The most notable examples of this were the culture of Los Millares and subsequently, the Argar (Almeria) and Zambujal in Torres Vedras (Portugal), which were the most magnificent architectural settlements on the Chalcolithic Iberian Peninsula. However, most communities were still typically found in the flatlands (particularly on river terraces and in valleys), which were more suitable for farming or raising livestock. Excavations at these sites have unearthed grain stores, landfills, store rooms, ditches and pits at these sites dating from this same time period. These societies also left behind an extensive fields of ring-diches which served as storage pits, particularly at les Jovades en Concentaina site, in Alicante and at the Ventorro site in Madrid. Notable exceptions to the settlements on the plains were those in caves or rock shelter such as the cova des Moro in Manacor (Mallorca) or cova des Fum in Formentera or Estremera in Madrid. Collective burying of their dead and the construction of megalithic burial chambers typical of the Late Neolithic continued to be common in the southeast, southwest, Northern Plateau and northwest of the Peninsula. These customs endured until the introduction of bell-shaped ceramic pots, which then allowed them to bury just a single individual. Despite regional variations in dating and definitively describing the period known as the Copper Age, it can be roughly classified into two periods: the Early Chalcolithic, dating from the first half of the Third Millennium (starting in 2250 BC) and the Late Chalcolithic, occurring from 2250 BC to 1900 BC. In the latter period, new ceramic pots began to appear in communities throughout Europe, allowing for more efficient preservation, storage, and transportation of goods. They were made by hand, generally with red clay, in an inverted bell shape, and then elaborately decorated with horizontal bands containing geometric or shell-shaped patterns, impressed or cut with combs or cords, and sometimes glazed. On the Peninsula, this pottery was initially decorated with international designs, referred to as Maritime, Corded or Mixed (2200-2150 BC), but later, a diverse array of regional designs appeared.

Co-authorship of the text in Spanish: María Sánchez Agustí, José Antonio Álvarez Castrillón, Mercedes de la Calle Carracedo, Daniel Galván Desvaux, Joaquín García Andrés, Isidoro González Gallego, Montserrat León Guerrero, Esther López Torres, Carlos Lozano Ruiz, Ignacio Martín Jiménez, Rosendo Martínez Rodríguez, Rafael de Miguel González. See the list of members engaged

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Experimentation with metallurgy: the Bronze Age

Image: The Bull from Costix. Museo Arqueológico Nacional, Madrid.

In the Second Millennium BC, population growth created a greater demand for raw materials and subsistence products, causing agricultural and livestock farming (and its by-products) to become more widespread. This still Neolithic society had already mastered metallurgical techniques and had discovered bronze, a strong alloy of copper and tin. Bronze arrived on the Peninsula through the Pyrenees in the Third Millennium BC and was used along with copper to make tools and objects, according to stratigraphic studies of the Bauma del Serrat del Pont site (Girona).
Trade increased during the Early Bronze Age and there are strong indications that society was becoming increasingly socially stratified. This was evidenced by the discovery of burial sites for single individuals (mainly in burial pits and megalithic cists) as well as by differences in the quality and quantity of funerary objects placed in these sites. The Argar culture, which succeeded the bell-shaped ceramic, and produced a wide range of ceramic objects, was no longer the only flourishing culture on the Peninsula, according to research carried out in the last 50 years. The Bronze Age map shows the emergence of a diversity of cultures chronologically beginning with the Protocogota settlements on the Nothern Plateau around 2000 BC.
The late Bronze Age began around the 11^th century BC with three different cultural currents predominating: Central European, Atlantic, and Eastern Mediterranean. With an increase in cultural exchanges, these civilisations mixed with native cultures, eventually evolving into what are known as Pre-Roman cultures. Major changes took place and new traditions arose. In the Northwest, they began to cremate their dead and leave their ashes in urnfields, while in the middle of the Peninsula and in the northern and western regions, highly sophisticated bronze weapons and objects were commercially traded. And lastly, merchants and new cultural groups arose in the Mediterranean and southern regions of the Peninsula, foreshadowing the future colonisation of these areas. Meanwhile, advances in metallurgy led to the development of goldsmithing, as evidenced by the Treasure of Villena (Alicante). Livestock routes stretching inland were also built, as revealed at some excavation sites such as Peña Negra in Crevillent (Alicante). These external influences did not, however, impede indigenous development. Examples of this can be seen from the Cogotas culture, which extended to the Douro and Tagus river basins starting in the 11^th century BC, as well as from the Talayotic culture on the Balearic Islands at the end of the Naviform period.
During this period emerge control walkway in livestock routes, water points, mountain passes or river fords as the Tagus River Trail. Metallurgical production sites were built to the north of the Tagus River in Portugal and along the Tinto-Odiel estuary, home to the Tartessian Civilisation during the 10^th and 11^th centuries BC. By the 8^th century BC the Atlantic metallurgy was predominant on the entire Iberian Peninsula, especially at settlements in fertile and grassy areas along the river plains. Such settlements were frequently left open and unprotected, but at other times, built inside walled enclosures. Phoenician merchants began to appear on the coasts around this precolonial period, and later, towards the end of the 7^th century BC, the Greeks.

Map: The Bronze Age. Spain. PDF. Data.

EARLY BRONZE AGE SITES

BRONZE AGE OF LA MANCHA
1 La Peñuela
2 La Morrota de los Cotos
3 Recuenco
4 Cabeza de Santa María
5 Los Palacios
6 Santa María del Retamar
7 Cerro del Bu
8 Cerro de La Encantada
9 Cerro del Cuchillo
10 Las Saladillas
11 El Acequión
12 El Quintanar
13 Cerro del Obispo
14 Cueva del Fraile
15 El Azuer

PROTOCOGOTAS
16 Los Tolmos
17 Arenero de los Vascos
18 Parpantique
19 Los Torojones
20 Loma del Lomo
21 Santioste
22 El Tomillar
23 Castillo de Cardeñosa
24 Necrópolis de Villalmanzo
25 Caserío de Perales
26 El Ventorro
27 El Tejar del Sastre
28 Las Pozas
29 Fábrica de Ladrillos
30 Cueva de Pedro Fernández
31 Castro de La Plaza
32 El Castillo
33 El Gurugú
34 Pico Aguilera

ARGAR CULTURE
35 El Argar
36 Fuente Álamo
37 El Oficio
38 Peñalosa
39 Gatas
40 El Picacho
41 Las Peñicas de Santomera
42 El Puntarrón Chico
43 Las Anchuras
44 Castellón Alto
45 Cuesta del Negro
46 Domingo I
47 Murviedro
48 La Bastida
49 Laderas del Castillo

SOUTHWEST BRONZE
50 Ferradeira
51 Punta Atalaia
52 Huelva

VALENCIAN BRONZE
53 Ereta del Pedregal
54 La Mola de Agrés
55 La Loma de Betxí
56 Terlinques
57 San Antón de Orihuela
58 Tabayá
59 Mas de Menente
60 Mas del Corral
61 Cabezo Redondo
62 Peña Negra
63 Los Saladares

NORTHWEST BRONZE
64 Agro de Nogueira
65 Fixón-Costa da Seixeira
66 Sola
67 Bouça da Cova da Moura
68 Cimalha
69 Erosa
70 Fraga dos Corvos
71 Caldas de Reis
72 Gandón
73 Mina del Milagro
74 Mina del Aramo
75 A Devesa de Abaixo

EBRO VALLEY BRONZE
76 Moncín
77 Cerro del Castillo de Frías
78 Monte Aguilar

CANTABRO-PYRENEAN AND CATALAN AREA
79 Osona
80 Porta Lloret
81 Bauma del Serrat del Pont
82 Cueva de Santimamiñe
83 Los Husos

BALEARIC BRONZE
84 Es Figueral de Son Real
85 Els Tudons
86 Son Mercer de Baix

LATE BRONZE AGE SITES

URNFIELDS
87 Agullana
88 Molá
89 Can Missert
90 Pontós
91 Els Vilars
92 Roquizal del Rullo
93 Cabezo Sellado
94 Cabezo de Monleón
95 Los Castellets II
96 Punta Farisa
97 Genó

ATLANTIC BRONZE
98 Rianxo
99 Caldas de Reis
100 Baiöes
101 Roça do Casal do Meio
102 Valcorchero
103 Cueva de Boquique
104 Berzocana
105 Sagrajas
106 Bodonal de la Sierra
107 Torrejón el Rubio
108 Valencia de Alcántara
109 Brozas
110 Zarza de Montánchez
111 Solana de Cabañas
112 Alburquerque
113 Ría de Huelva
114 Cueva de la Cancela

SOUTHEASTLEVANT BRONZE
115 El Picacho
116 Cerro de la Encina
117 Cerro del Real
118 Peña Negra
119 Los Saladares
120 Villena
121 Murviedro
122 La Gorriquía
123 Campos
124 Las Alparatas
125 Cañada del Palmar
126 Totana
127 Diezma
128 Baza
129 Arroyo Molinos
130 Cerro Alcalá
131 Guadix
132 Campotéjar
133 Caramoro II
134 Herrerías
135 El Macalón
136 Cerro de la Mora
137 Gatas
138 El Peñón de la Reina
139 Cobatillas la Vieja
140 El Castellar
141 Parazuelos
142 Cova d’en Pardo
143 Cueva del Alto
144 Cueva de las Delicias
145 Cueva de los Hermanillos
146 Llano de los Ceperos
147 Collado y Pinar de Santa Ana
148 Domingo I
149 Qurénima
150 Caldero de Mojácar
151 Barranco Hondo
152 Cerro de los Infantes
153 Les Moreres

COGOTAS
154 Cogotas
155 El Negralejo
156 Fábrica de Ladrillos
157 Caserío de Perales
158 Ecce Homo
159 La Muela
160 San Román de Hornija
161 Huerta de Arriba
162 El Cerro
163 Tres Chopos-Abarre
164 Carricastro
165 El Gurugú
166 Los Rompizales
167 Teso del Cuerno
168 Carrelasvegas
169 El Pelambre
170 La Huelga
171 La Muela de Galve

TALAYOTIC
172 Son Catlar
173 Torralba d’en Salort
174 Torrellafuda
175 Torretrencada
176 Ses Païsses
177 Capocorb Vell

CANTABRIAN AREA
178 Los Husos
179 Axtroki
180 La Hoya
181 Alto de la Cruz
182 Puy Águila
183 Santimamiñe
184 Lumentxa
185 Los Goros
186 Mina Castillejos
187 Los Oscos
188 Larón
189 Caldueño
190 Santullano
191 El Juyo

SOUTHWEST BRONZE
192 Cerro Salomón
193 Tejada la Vieja
194 Niebla
195 Huelva
196 San Bartolomé
197 Setefilla
198 Carmona
199 Montemolín
200 El Berrueco
201 Llanete de los Moros
202 Colina de los Quemados

Co-authorship of the text in Spanish: María Sánchez Agustí, José Antonio Álvarez Castrillón, Mercedes de la Calle Carracedo, Daniel Galván Desvaux, Joaquín García Andrés, Isidoro González Gallego, Montserrat León Guerrero, Esther López Torres, Carlos Lozano Ruiz, Ignacio Martín Jiménez, Rosendo Martínez Rodríguez, Rafael de Miguel González. See the list of members engaged

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A prelude to societal and territorial reorganisation: the Iron Age

Image: Belt from Aliseda Hoard. Museo Arqueológico Nacional, Madrid.

The dawning of the Iron Age on the Peninsula meant a new era in the Neolithic, but it did not lead to significant cultural changes for the people who settled on the Iberian Peninsula at that time.

Map: Tartessian culture. Iberian Peninsula, south. PDF. Data.

The use of this new metal technology, which required furnaces capable of reaching extremely high temperatures, did not spread homogenously throughout the Peninsula. Iron-making first began on the coastline in the middle of the 8^th century BC by such predominant protohistoric cultures as the Tartessos while inland civilisations continued to work with bronze and were slower to adopt this new technology. These diverse regional differences (evident at some archaeological sites) led to transformations in how these societies were organised throughout the territory, signalling that the Iberian people were entering into a new era (known as ancient history) and leaving Prehistory behind.
This long epoch known as the Iron Age is conventionally divided into two stages: the Early Iron Age (750 BC - 500 BC) and the Late Iron Age (500 BC - 200 BC, as illustrated in the maps of the same tittle.
The Early Iron Age is characterised by two large civilisations occupying two distinct Iberian geographical regions: one in the south and the other, in the east of the Peninsula. The accepted notion that these civilisations were influenced by Mediterranean cultures is supported by the discovery of Protocolonial remnants on the east coast. There is also evidence of Phoenician colonisations in the Southern Mediterranean and Atlantic (Gadir) regions and of the first Greek colonies, including those established by groups under Greek influence. Moreover, there were the great Tartessian settlements in Andalusia, particularly along the Tinto, Odiel and Lower Guadalquivir rivers.
In the north and middle of the Peninsula, the communities remained isolated from Mediterranean influences and retained their indigenous identity and traditions (including, in some cases, the use of bronze). Such behaviour was exhibited by the Late Burial Urnfields Culture (Catalonia and the Ebro Valley), Sorian hillforts culture, the Atlantic Cultures (Portugal, Galicia, and the Cantabrian Cornice), in addition to the Soto de Medinilla culture in the Douro river basin.

Map: Early Iron Age. Spain. PDF. Data.

EARLY IRON AGE SITES

PHOENICIAN SETTLEMENTS
1 Gadir
2 Tavira
3 Cerro del Prado
4 Cerro del Villar
5 Toscanos
6 Malaka
7 Sexi
8 Abdera
9 Abul
10 Baria
11 La Fontela
12 Eivissa
13 Las Chorreras
14 Morro de Mezquitilla

CULTURES UNDER PHOENICIAN INFLUENCE
15 Alpiarca
16 Torres Vedras
17 Alcácer do Sal
18 Sines
19 Ourique
20 Torre de Doña Blanca
21 Huelva
22 Medellín
23 Cancho Roano
24 La Aliseda
25 Castro Marim
26 Galera
27 Monachil
28 Peña Negra
29 Los Saladares
30 Loma del Boliche
31 Cañada del Palmar
32 Les Moreres

TARTESSIAN AREA
33 Cástulo
34 Riotinto
35 Niebla
36 Setefilla
37 Valencina de la Concepción
38 Carambolo
39 Carmona
40 Acebuchal
41 Utrera
42 Osuna
43 Estepa
44 Trebujena
45 Mesas de Asta
46 Churriana
47 Chipiona
48 Ébora
49 Cabezo de la Esperanza
50 San Pedro
51 La Joya
52 Colina de los Quemados
53 Lebrija
54 Tharsis
55 Andújar
56 Castellones

PROTO-COLONIAL INFLUENCES
57 Vinaragell II
58 Los Saladares
59 Burriana
60 Santa Catalina del Monte
61 El Castellar
62 El Murtal
63 San Cristóbal
64 Tossal-Redó
65 Mas de Flandi
66 Els Castellans
67 Les Ombries
68 Azaila

GREEK SETTLEMENTS
69 Emporiom
70 Rhode

CULTURES UNDER GREEK INFLUENCE
71 Alonis
72 Mainake
73 Ullastret
74 Puig de Sant Andreu
75 Bolbax
76 Verdolay
77 Cabezo del Tío Pío
78 Castillico de las Peñas
79 El Cigarralejo
80 Cobatillas
81 Coimbra de Barranco Ancho
82 Los Molinicos
83 Los Nietos
84 Coy

SORIAN HILLFORTS CULTURE
85 El Pico
86 El Puntal
87 Cerro de la Calderuela
88 Alto del Arenal
89 Arévalo de la Sierra
90 Cabrejas
91 Los Castillejos
92 El Castillo
93 El Castillejo
94 Zarranzano
95 Castillejo
96 Valdeavellano de Tera
97 El Collado
98 Castilfrío de la Sierra
99 Castilviejo de Guijosa
100 La Coronilla

SOUTHERN PLATEAU GROUPS
101 Cerro de las Nieves
102 El Navazo
103 Madrigueras
104 Soto del Hinojar
105 Puente Largo de Jarama

ATLANTIC CULTURES
106 Monte O Facho
107 Castromao
108 Cameixa
109 Borneiro
110 Torroso
111 A Forca
112 Taboexa
113 Chao Samartín
114 As Croas
115 Neixón Pequeno
116 Penarrubia
117 Camoca
118 Campa Torres
119 Nossa Senhora de Guia
120 Monte do Frade
121 Moreirinha
122 Lois
123 Os Castros
124 Picu Castiellu de Moriyón

LATE BURIAL URNFIELDS
125 Agullana
126 El Molà
127 San Antonio
128 La Pedrera
129 Cabezo de Monleón
130 Almohaja de Bezas
131 Palermo
132 San Cristóbal
133 Loma de los Brunos
134 Roquizal del Rullo
135 Alto de la Cruz
136 El Convento
137 Morredón
138 La Cruz
139 Zaforas
140 Partelapeña
141 La Coronilla
142 Santa Ana
143 Fila de la Muela
144 Besodia
145 Montefiu
146 Roques de Sant Formatge
147 Puntual
148 Azaila
149 Pajaroncillo
150 Pic dels Corbs
151 Cavanes
152 Salzadella
153 Vinaragell
154 Gatas
155 Henayo
156 La Hoya
157 Castillo de Henayo
158 Alto de la Cruz
159 Gastiburu
160 Intxur

SOTO DE MEDINILLA CULTURES
161 Quintana de Fon
162 Castrillo de Polvazares
163 Villazala del Páramo
164 Castrotierra
165 Barrientos
166 Castro del Morión
167 Regueras de Arriba
168 San Martín de Torres
169 Castrocalbón
170 San Pedro de la Viña
171 San Juan de Torres
172 Valencia de Don Juan
173 Villafañe
174 Santa María del Río
175 Saldaña
176 Pedrosa de la Vega
177 Carrión de los Condes
178 Ardón
179 Gusendos de los Oteros
180 Valderas
181 Gordaliza de la Loma
182 Mayorga de Campos
183 Castrobol
184 Villavicencio de los Caballeros
185 Castroponce
186 Melgar de Arriba
187 Melgar de Abajo
188 Villacarralón
189 Cisneros
190 Villanueva de la Condesa
191 Paredes de Nava
192 Herrín de Campos
193 Villacid de Campos
194 Cuenca de Campos
195 Moral de la Reina
196 Tamariz de Campos
197 Castromocho
198 Aguilar de Campos
199 Villafrechós
200 Villanueva de San Mancio
201 Medina de Rioseco
202 Tordehumos
203 Villagarcía de Campos
204 Torrelobatón
205 Mota del Marqués
206 El Soto de Medinilla
207 Castronuevo de Esgueva
208 Renedo
209 Villabáñez
210 San Martín de Valvení
211 Olmos de Esgueva
212 Valoria la Buena
213 Amusquillo
214 Piñel de Abajo
215 Pesquera de Duero
216 Curiel
217 Roa
218 Padilla de Duero
219 Santibáñez de Valcorba
220 Montemayor de Pililla
221 Cogeces del Monte
222 Tudela de Duero
223 Simancas
224 Pollos
225 Valdestillas
226 Matapozuelos
227 Santiago del Arroyo
228 Foncastín
229 Medina del Campo
230 Alcazarén
231 El Campillo
232 Gomeznarro
233 Almenara de Adaja
234 Coca
235 Cuéllar
236 Ayllón
237 Langa de Duero
238 Pinilla Trasmonte
239 Solarana
240 Lara de los Infantes
241 Palenzuela
242 Santa María del Campo
243 Castrojeriz
244 Los Ausines
245 Ubierna
246 Camarzana de Tera
248 Castropepe
249 Barcial del Barco
247 Castrogonzalo
250 Bretó
251 Arrabalde
252 Valdunquillo
253 Fuentes de Ropel
254 Revellinos
255 Villafáfila
256 Villalpando
257 Bolaños de Campos
258 Villanueva de los Caballeros
259 Castromembibre
260 Carbajales de Alba
261 Abezames
262 Pinilla de Toro
263 Molacillos
264 Ricobayo
265 Madridanos
266 Villalazán
267 La Tuda

Co-authorship of the text in Spanish: María Sánchez Agustí, José Antonio Álvarez Castrillón, Mercedes de la Calle Carracedo, Daniel Galván Desvaux, Joaquín García Andrés, Isidoro González Gallego, Montserrat León Guerrero, Esther López Torres, Carlos Lozano Ruiz, Ignacio Martín Jiménez, Rosendo Martínez Rodríguez, Rafael de Miguel González. See the list of members engaged

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Cultural areas and Pre-Roman civilisation

During the Early Iron Age (or Iron Age I), despite the peculiarities of the individual communities located on the Peninsula, these groups shared a common culture with its own customs and traditions, which they managed to sustain even in the face of constant influences from the outside world. Asian influences were felt on the Andalusian, southeastern and eastern coasts, slowly spreading to the farthest stretches of the Peninsula, even to areas difficult to access from the coastlines.
Archaeological evidence regarding early Phoenician presence on the Peninsula reveals they had already started establishing commercial contacts in the area before the 8^th century BC or precolonial era. As the Phoenicians began to permanently settle in the southwestern reaches of the territory and gain control of this area sometime after the 7^th century BC, close trading relations were gradually developed with the Punic cities of the Near East and Northern Africa. A network of commercial trading routes was established. Their products were exported from their Metropoli to the Iberian Peninsula through developing markets on the Iberian coasts, expanding into the interior.

Image: The Lady of Baza (Dama de Baza). Museo Arqueológico Nacional, Madrid.

The colonisations of the areas around Huelva and the Lower Guadalquivir facilitated the growth of the Tartessian culture (it has been spoken about the kingdom of the Tartessos and even about some of its kings) in the Early Iron Age or Iron Age I. This historical and cultural development featured profound changes in the region's indigenous societies. In the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age I, they transitioned to mining and exploiting the land in the Guadalquivir valley for agricultural purposes, making necessary frequent exchanges and other forms of social interactions. Growing cultural, social and economic influences from the Eastern Mediterranean were becoming evident in these communities. This phenomenon is both evidenced by and attributable to the importation of ceramics, objects made of precious metals, fabrics, oil, and wine.
The Tartessian civilisation, initially limited to the areas along the Tinto, Odiel and lower Guadalquivir rivers, as can be seen on the map Early Iron Age, expanded throughout the southern reaches of the Peninsula to the mouths of the Guadiana and Segura Rivers. The influence of the Tartessian culture had also spanned the southeastern part of the Peninsula, the southern eastern region, the southern coast of Portugal and the interior of Andalusia. Remnants of a Tartessian capital, or of a cultural epicentre have yet to be found despite a tireless search by archaeologists.
Meanwhile, the centre of the Peninsula was much slower to adapt to the technological changes taking place, and as a consequence, its populations did not experience the same level of growth and prosperity as their counterparts in the south. The central territory eventually began to be populated by small fortified villages. An example of this is the Soto de Medinilla culture (which is named after the most thoroughly studied settlement in Valladolid) in the Douro Valley.
By the Iron Age II (500 BC, many years before Romanisation), the use of iron was widespread throughout the Peninsula, greatly increasing the number and variety of available tools. At the same time, new social and economic structures arose on the Peninsula, built on foundations laid from the peoples of the previous era. These cultural and territorial changes were described by Greco-Latin writers, particularly by Pliny and Strabo. The process of acculturation initiated subsequently by Rome was influenced by these Iberian developments.
Historians and archaeologists have pointed out the difficulty of linking the data from material remains to information provided by historiographic or literary sources because the information is often confusing and contradictory. Nevertheless, the field of archaeology is making a concerted effort to identify the geographic distribution of Pre-Roman communities based on data obtained from research, as illustrated on the map Late Iron Age. Pre-Roman peoples.
The map shows the location of the major archaeological settlement sites identified on the Iberian Peninsula compared to the areas traditionally ascribed to the principle ethnic groups in archaeological literature. This map and its associated information, should be read and interpreted recognising that the borders of the areas occupied by these population groups are generally loosely defined since there were constant social and economic interactions between their respective populations. As a consequence of such interaction over the centuries, these areas were constantly expanding and contracting over the centuries, inevitably producing border uncertainty. The Lusitanian and Veton population groups are examples of this.
In the south and east, the influence of Colonial Greek acculturation on pre-existing populations varying in social status, led to the eventual establishment of a unified Iberian culture, made up of different groups such as the Turdetani, Bastetani, Oretani, Turduli, Contestani, Edetani, Ilercaones, Ilergetae, Cessetani, Laietani, Indiketes and Sedetani. Its preponderance in the Peninsula (not in vain named Iberian), is explained by its intense commercial activity, the refinement of agricultural techniques, and its specialization in typically Mediterranean crops (cereals, vines, olive trees), as well as by the development of specialized iron metallurgy and the growth of its population, which gives the entire Mediterranean coastline a higher population density. Their acts of worship and funerary rituals (cremation) reveal a well-structured social hierarchy and a more advanced society. With the introduction of palatial sistem, the peoples of this Iberian culture began the process of urbanisation. They produced important works of art like The Ladies (damas) of Elche (Alicante), Baza (Granada), Guardamar (Cabezo Lucero, Alicante) and Cerro de los Santos (a lost sanctuary near Yecla). They also created high quality metal works of gold and silver, as can be seen by treasures found at Jávea (Alicante) and at Cástulo and Linares (Jaén). Moreover, they had an alphabet, albeit not fully unravelled which spread to the south of France and was used until it was replaced, during the period of Romanisation, by the Latin language and alphabet.
The rest of the Peninsula reflected a conglomeration of indo-European-rooted peoples some more influenced by the Celts than others. There were those on the Plateau: Celtiberi, Vaccaei and Vettones; on the Atlantic coast: Celtici of the southwest, Lusitani and Callaeci (Northwest hillforts groups); and in the north, Astures, Cantabri, Autrigones, Varduli, Caristii and Berones. The Vascones located in the Navarran Pyrenees, were also in the north.
The most recent research on the geographical distribution of the population on the Iberian Peninsula during the Iron Age II shows an overall gradual population increase throughout the territory attributable to the expansion of walled settlements (where population tended to concentrate), although the growth varied from region to region. Many of these communities arose starting in the 2^nd century BC with the creation of Oppida, authenthic urban centres with administrative functions and territorial power. These Oppida eventually became civitates with the Roman occupation of the Peninsula. Life was pastoral and reliant on subsistence farming, primarily involving dried grains, particularly in the Douro and Ebro river basins. There were notable developments in ceramics and metallurgy (particularly for weapons, fibulas, and bracelets) and in the growth and expansion of commercial trade. Noteworthy examples evidencing significant artistic advancement include rock sculptures of boars made (verracos) by the Vetton culture and the monolithic stone discs of the Cantabrian stela.

Map: Late Iron Age. Pre-Roman peoples. Spain. PDF. Data.

IBERIAN AREA SITES

TURDETANI
1 Tejada la Nueva
2 La Atalayuela
3 Vico
4 Alhonoz
5 Pajar de Artillo
6 Cerro Macareno

BASTETANI
7 Basti
8 Tutugi
9 Las Cabezuelas
10 Los Nietos
11 Los Villaricos
12 Los Molinicos
13 Molata de Casa Vieja

ORETANI
14 Oreto-Zuqueca
15 Alarcos
16 Calatrava la Vieja
17 Cerro de las Cabezas
18 Sisapo
19 Mantesa Oretana
20 Cástulo
21 Giribaile
22 Puente Tablas
23 Cueva de la Lobera
24 Collado de los Jardines

TURDULI
25 La Mesilla
26 Tabla de las Cañas
27 Peñón del Pez
28 Cerro Cogolludo
29 Dehesillas

CONTESTANI
30 Tossal de Manises
31 Monforte del Cid
32 La Alcudia
33 La Serreta
34 El Puig
35 Illeta dels Bayets
36 El Amarejo
37 El Tolmo de Minateda
38 Pozo Moro
39 Coimbra del Barranco Ancho
40 La Senda
41 El Cigarralejo
42 Cerro de la Luz
43 Cobatillas la Vieja
44 Castillico de las Peñas
45 Cabezo del Tío Pío
46 Llano de la Consolación
47 Los Villares

EDETANI
48 Sant Miquel
49 Arse
50 Sucro
51 Corral de Saus

ILERCAONES
52 Sant Miquel
53 Castellet de Banyoles
54 Coll del Moro
55 La Moleta del Remei

ILERGETAE
56 Iltirta
57 Els Villars
58 Moli d’Espigol
59 Olriols
60 La Vispesa
61 Tozal de Monderes
62 La Codera

CESSETANI
63 Kesse
64 Calafell

LAIETANI
65 Turó d’en Boscà
66 Ca n’Oliver
67 Puig Castelar

INDIKETES
68 Ullastret
69 Castell
70 Puig Castellet
71 Mas Castellar

SEDETANI
72 Salduie
73 Cabezo de Alcalá
74 El Taratrato
75 San Antonio
76 Cabezo de San Pedro
77 El Castelillo
78 Kelse

CELTIC AREA SITES

CELTIBERI
79 Turiasu
80 Arcobriga
81 Mundobriga
82 Bílbilis
83 Ocilis
84 Segóbriga
85 Bursada
86 Contrebia
87 El Convento
88 Calagurris
89 Botorrita
90 Numancia
91 Herrera de los Navarros
92 Fuentes Claras
93 Peñalba de Villastar
94 Alto Chacón
95 La Caridad
96 Puntal del Tío Garrillas
97 Iniesta
98 La Guardia
99 Barchín del Hoyo
100 Segeda
101 Piquete de la Atalaya
102 La Oruña
103 Uxama

VACCAEI
104 Pintia
105 Olivares de Duero
106 Simancas
107 Montealegre de Campos
108 Cerro de la Ermita
109 Matapozuelos
110 Melgar de Abajo
111 Los Azafranales
112 Plaza del Castillo
113 Cuetos de la Estación

VETTONES
114 Las Cogotas
115 Los Castillejos
116 La Mesa de Miranda
117 Cerro de San Vicente
118 Obila
119 Cáparra
120 Ulaca
121 El Raso
122 Las Merchanas
123 Yecla
124 Irueña
125 El Castillo

LUSITANI-VETTON AREA
126 Alto do Corregidor
127 Castelo
128 São Martinho
129 Foz da Côa
130 Villasviejas del Tamuja
131 El Castillejo
132 El Berrocalillo
133 Castillejo de la Orden
134 Castillejo de Valdecañas
135 El Cofre
136 El Castillejo
137 Sierra de Santa Marina

CARPETANI
138 Cerro de la Gavia
139 Llano de la Horca
140 Fuente de la Mora
141 Miralrío
142 Cerro del Ecce Homo
143 Castro de la Dehesa de la Oliva
144 El Cerrón
145 Cerro del Gollino
146 Plaza de Moros
147 Cerro del Tío Calderico
148 Cerro de las Nieves
149 Laminium

CELTICI OF THE SOUTHWEST
150 Castelo Velho
151 Segovia
152 Garvão
153 Corvo-Neves I
154 Castelho de Mértola
155 Castelho da Amendoeira
156 Atafona
157 Sierra del Coto
158 Castrejón de Capote
159 Castillo de Jerez
160 Castillejos
161 La Alcazaba de Badajoz
162 El Castañuelo
163 Castro de la Ermita de Belén

CALLAECI (NORTHWEST HILLFORTS GROUPS)
164 Saceda
165 San Millán
166 Mosteiro
167 Laias
168 San Cibrán
169 Novás
170 Santa Trega
171 Briteiros
172 Sanfins
173 Lanhoso
174 Sao Julião
175 Muro da Pastoria
176 Vilarinho das Paranheiras
177 Cossourado
178 Castro de Ortov
179 Elviña
180 Meirás
181 Lanzada
182 Borneiro
183 Viladonga
184 Vilela
185 Neixón Grande
186 Vigo
187 Troña
188 Punta
dos Prados
189 A Graña Barán
190 Castro da Torre
191 O Achadizo
192 Castro do Vilar
193 As Grovas
194 Formigueiros
195 O Facho
196 A Ourela
197 Socastro
198 San Tomé de Nogueira
199 Punta Cociñadoiro
200 Valdamio
201 O Peto
202 Follente
203 Croa do Ladrido
204 Fazouro
205 Punta do Castro
206 A Devesa
207 Castro de Rei
208 Montealegre
209 Curalha

AUTRIGONES
210 Arce-Mirapérez
211 Castros de Lastra
212 Alto de Rodilla (Tritium)
213 Monte San Juan (Virovesca)
214 Cerro del Milagro (Salionca)
215 Necrópolis de Miraveche
216 Monte Socueto

CARISTII
217 Atxa
218 Peñas de Oro
219 Henaio
220 Marueleza
221 La Hoya

VARDULI
222 Intxur
223 Basagain
224 Buruntza
225 Muru
226 Munoaundi
227 Murugain

CANTABRI
228 Peña Sámano
229 Peña Amaya
230 Monte Bernorio
231 Peña Ulaña
232 Castilnegro
233 Celada Marlantes
234 El Castro
235 La Trijineja
236 Pico del Oro
237 La Masera
238 Las Eras
239 Los Agudos
240 La Lomba
241 Pico del Castro
242 El Gurugú
243 Peñarubia

ASTURES
244 Castro de Avelâós
245 As Muradellas
246 Las Labradas
247 La Corona
248 El Buracote
249 El Chano
250 Las Rozas
251 El Castro
252 La Corona
253 Campa Torres
254 San Chuis
255 Chao Samartín
256 El Castelón
257 San Isidro
258 El Castiellu
259 El Esteiro
260 Cabo Blanco
261 Pendia

VASCONES
263 Santa Criz
264 Las Eretas
265 El Castillar
266 Turbil
267 Arrosia
268 Pozo de la Mora
269 Altikogaña

Co-authorship of the text in Spanish: María Sánchez Agustí, José Antonio Álvarez Castrillón, Mercedes de la Calle Carracedo, Daniel Galván Desvaux, Joaquín García Andrés, Isidoro González Gallego, Montserrat León Guerrero, Esther López Torres, Carlos Lozano Ruiz, Ignacio Martín Jiménez, Rosendo Martínez Rodríguez, Rafael de Miguel González. See the list of members engaged

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You can download the complete publication Spain on maps. A geographic synopsis in Libros Digitales del ANE site.

es:Prehistoria