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Revision as of 06:28, 15 April 2024
Spain on maps. A geographic synopsis
Compendium of the National Atlas of Spain. New content
Thematic structure > History > Historical overview > Prehistory
Understanding the Iberian Peninsula in the Paleolithic
The Lower Paleolithic covers a vast period in the history of the Iberian Peninsula. As illustrated in the figure, it spanned from 1,350,000 years ago to roughly 130,000 years BC, the period which is generally considered to mark the beginning of the Middle Paleolithic. The Lower Paleolithic coincides with the geological age of both the Lower (or possibly older) and Middle Pleistocene Epochs. The Lower Pleistocene had a warm climate similar to today´s Mediterranean environment in which the regular flow of water from rivers (greater in the Atlantic watershed than in the Mediterranean watershed) deposited sediment and produced fluvial terraces. The fauna typical of this time period was similar to that of the present-day African Savannah: large mammals such as elephants, panthers, saber-tooth tigers, hippopotamus, zebras, and hyenas. The Middle Pleistocene was marked by glaciations which transformed ecosystems and gave rise to mammals such as cave bears, rhinoceros, and mammoths.
The oldest human fossil remains found on the Iberian Peninsula were discovered in sima del Elefante, (in the archaeological site of Atapuerca, Burgos) in the form of a jawbone from an undetermined hominid dating from 1,200,000 years ago. If the fossil were of Homo habilis origin, it might have arrived on the Iberian Peninsula by way of the Strait of Gibraltar. Another hypothesis is that the fossil could belong to a new species called Homo antecessor, which may have possibly evolved from individuals of Homo erectus and settled on the Iberian Peninsula (at Gran Dolina, TD6, Atapuerca) after having migrated from Asia around 800,000 years ago. However, it is important to note that fossilised human remains of, as yet, undetermined origin have also been unearthed at Venta Micena in Orce (Granada) and in cueva Victoria, in Cartagena (Murcia).
Two subsequent species emerged and lived together in the Iberian Peninsula: Homo neanderthalensis, which marked the beginning of the Middle Paleolithic, and Homo heidelbergensis. Neanderthal remains found in El Sidrón, in Piloña (Asturias) witness their presence and are of particular significance. It should be mentioned that prior to this finding, around 28 individuals (a relatively large number) were discovered in sima de los Huesos at Atapuerca, making up more than 85% of the world´s recorded fossils of the primitive neardenthaliensis species. These remains were initially thought to be Devisovan, a species that predated neardenthaliensis. Since the massive presence of individuals at Atapuerca does not appear to be a coincidence, but rather a burial site, it is believed that there existed some degree of religious practice. Neanderthals formed small nomadic tribes and harnessed the use of fire, perhaps without mastery. They lived out in the open air, sometimes at the mouths of caves, and when not scavenging, led a hunter-gatherer lifestyle; and appear to have even engaged in cannibalism.
The defining characteristic of these hominids placing them in the genus Homo is their ability to make tools. Initially, they made stone tools, typically of flint and quartzite, shaped and sharpened on only one surface (using stone tool technology). And later, tools were made by shaping both sides of the stone, forming bifacial preforms typical of Acheulean technology. The early tools, which were bulky and heavy and made in situ, were abandoned as soon as hunted animals were cut and skinned, whereas bifacial tools were typically kept for future use, as they were more versatile and difficult to produce.
The Middle Paleolithic, which began approximately 130,000 years BC, coincided with the widespread presence of Homo neanderthalensis.
Homo neanderthalensis had a cranium size of 1,450 cm3, slightly larger than modern man. Their bodies had a similar average stature of 1,70 cm, although stockier and perhaps with shorter limbs. Their presence coincided with the cold climate of the Würm glaciation, which precipitated the taking of refuge in caves. The most significant enclaves were found in cueva de las Grajas, in Archidona (Málaga), dating from roughly 200,000 years ago and cueva de Nerja, where the Neanderthals subsequently created the earliest known cave paintings about 40,000 years ago as well as at the sima de las Palomas de Cabezo Gordo (Murcia) site.
The two most prominent settlements established on the Iberian Peninsula were at the already mentioned cueva del Sidrón in Piloña (Asturias) and at Calvero de la Higuera in Pinilla del Valle (Madrid). At the former site, remnants were unearthed of about 13 individuals (the best collection in Spain) who lived 43,000 years ago. At the latter site, in addition to an extensive assemblage of fauna fossils, which even included unknown species such as the so-called “whistling hare”, Neanderthal remains were uncovered in what is believed to be the oldest known burial site. The remains were of a young girl with red hair, which appears to be consistent with most of her congeners. There is also clear evidence of burial sites in cueva Morín in Villaescusa (Cantabria).
Despite the controversy surrounding the coexistence and interbreeding of Neanderthals and Homo sapiens, recent studies of cueva de la Güelga in Cangas de Onís (Asturias) reveal clear evidence of such activity from roughly 40,000 years ago. There is no debate about whether the Neanderthals engaged in cannibalism as remnants at both Sidrón archeological site and cueva del Boquete de Zafarralla (Málaga) indicate. With regard to interbreeding, an exhaustive study of DNA from the remains recovered at cueva del Sidrón, suggests that their blood was compatible with that of Homo sapiens.
The Neanderthals manufactured tools using an innovative technology known as the Levallois technique. Since it came from the Mousterian tool culture, this period is referred to as the Mousterian era. At this time, Neanderthals were no longer just using stone cores, but were intentionally engineering them with retouches and grooves to obtain flakes of different shapes for scrapers, cleavers, denticulate saws and spear points, which they attached to a shaft to be used for specific tasks. This expertise in tool making was an adaptation to the necessities of survival. Neanderthals continued to lead a predatory way of life as hunter-gatherers, but the harsh climatic conditions of the glacial environment compelled them to craft better clothing and look for more effective ways to stockpile food. It is generally agreed that the Neanderthals’ two greatest achievements were mastery of the art of fire making and the use of spoken language, albeit a less complex form than that of modern humans.
In the majority of settlements, where human remains have been observed, lithic remnants have also been uncovered; however, the reverse case is not necessarily true. For example, the multiple artefacts discovered at Atapuerca can be only attributed to the Neanderthals; however, actual (skeletal) fossil remains of this hominid group have not been found at this site. Such findings hinder the study of evolutionary changes.
The Upper Paleolithic, which coincided with the end of the Upper Pleistocene, saw the evolutionary rise of a new species called Homo sapiens starting in approximately 40,000 BC. The end of the Upper Pleistocene on the Iberian Peninsula took place around 12,000 to 10,000 BC, which was followed by a new epoch called the Neolithic, also known as the Holocene on the geological time scale.
Homo sapiens are a species that originated in Africa. The earliest human fossils found on the Iberian Peninsula date from roughly 35,000 years ago and were unearthed from settlements sited along rivers. For some time, Homo sapiens coexisted with Neanderthals, eventually replacing them as their populations declined. The fact that this occurred despite the Neanderthal´s larger brain capacity has elicited explanations that are the subject of much speculation. It is known that Homo sapiens were able to survive the glacial periods that led many species on the European continent to extinction. A diverse diet consisting of game, collected fruit, small fish such as salmon and trout, and molluscs may have contributed to their survival.
Homo sapiens are a modern and very refined hominid whose tools reveal a new stage in evolution. Referred to as microliths and multilayered tools, they were smaller in size and similar to knives. They also made use of new materials such as wood, bone, antler, ivory and shells. In addition to cave paintings, decorative objects such as necklaces also appeared.
The early sapiens were clearly creative beings. They made music: flutes were found at La Güelga in Cangas del Onís (Asturias) and El Castillo in Puente Viesgo (Cantabria), and built very advanced contraptions like grinders to pulverize vegetables and obtain grains. They created organised social hierarchies, as suggested by the use of power connoting accessories like staffs. And they were fond of art as shown by such unique sculptures as the Venus figurines. They engineered new tools such as harpoons and short spears, which indicate a gradual diversification of hunting and fishing methods and expanded the array of animals they hunted for food. Such tools may also have been developed in response to violent encounters among competing factions.
Though more organised and numerous than their ancestors at this point, they were still nomads, who periodically lived in caves. Vestiges of huts were found near the coasts and at the mouths of rivers where they dwelt. Burial sites bearing funerary objects were now ubiquitous, suggesting possession of the capacity to think symbolically and a belief in an afterlife. Corpses sprinkled with ochre powder have been found, and sometimes accompanied by traces of flower pollen, a combination which may have been a sign of family or emotional bonds. The existence of sea shells in excavation sites in the Manzanares river basin suggests they travelled long distances and traded objects.
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Artistic expression in the Upper Paleolithic
There is much debate about whether to attribute the earliest development of artistic expression solely to Homo sapiens based on the fact that its emergence coincided with their existence, and there is also similar debate with respect to the Paleolithic. Since Neanderthals were also present at this time, they may have been responsible for some of these works, and previous works; possible examples include: El Castillo (a red disc and hand figures), Tito Bustillo (some remains), Altamira (a claviform symbol), and cueva de Nerja with seal paintings (from possibly 42,000 years ago). Nevertheless, the earliest substantiated evidence of sapiens artistic expression, known as the Franco-Cantabrian style, is from the great Nordpeninsular and Nordpyrenean complexes. Works were also found in other areas such as Pileta, Maltravieso and Siega Verde. Animal figures such as bison, horses and fallow deer, and rarely humans, were the protagonists of these paintings. The images, made with continuous lines and usually pigmented with ochre or black from iron oxide or manganese, were created in the backs of caves, perhaps to create a magical effect. They used the irregularities in the stone to give volume to and enhance the naturalism of the images. Very few portable art exist from this prehistoric time such pendants (made from stone, bone, shells, or teeth), weapons (such as harpoons and spears), or objects connoting power (canes from Caballón and Castillo), although the 6,000 engravings on the limestone caves of Cova del Parpalló make up the largest collection of art in Europe from this era. |
Co-authorship of the text in Spanish: María Sánchez Agustí, José Antonio Álvarez Castrillón, Mercedes de la Calle Carracedo, Daniel Galván Desvaux, Joaquín García Andrés, Isidoro González Gallego, Montserrat León Guerrero, Esther López Torres, Carlos Lozano Ruiz, Ignacio Martín Jiménez, Rosendo Martínez Rodríguez, Rafael de Miguel González. See the list of members engaged
The Neolithic slowly unfolds
Scientists do not agree as to whether this was the beginning or the end of an epoch. As the Holocene began, the interglacial period that is believed to be taking place today was already under way. The sapiens were adapting quickly to a more temperate climate and vegetative landscape as well as to the availability of more desirable animals for hunting. Communities were becoming more specialised in exploiting a variety of available resources, leading to improvements in hunting, gathering, fishing and shellfishing. Some historians believe that the Paleolithic Period was coming to a close and refer to this time period as the Epi-Paleolithic. However, other historians consider this to be the beginning of a new era starting roughly 12,000 BC, describing it as the Mesolithic Period, or Middle Stone Age, which was then proceeded imperceptibly by the Neolithic.
A plethora of technologically advanced tools and contraptions such as harpoons, spears, sickles, saws, arrows, knives, and darts have been found, which they crafted in response to forces necessitating new ways of subsistence. Stones were finely burnished to be fashioned as useful tools and microliths embedded in polished wooden handles were made with an angular shape suitable for cutting, scraping, and penetrating their prey; samples of small painted rocks depicting this phenomenon have been discovered in some settlements.
Evidence in three different regions has led to the identification of what has come to define the Neolithic period: a sedentary lifestyle, albeit initially tentative and seasonally dependant. From the Pyrenees (Mas d´Azil site in France) and extending to the entire septentrion, the Azilian cultures predominated, particularly the Asturian culture. This civilisation can be characterised by their tools, such as the "Asturian pick", and shell fishing lifestyle, as evidenced by an accumulation of seashells, named "concheros". On the East coast and stretching inland to the Ebro Valley, farming communities appeared along with microlayered and geometric tools. And on the Atlantic coast and reaching to the Algarve, there is evidence of wetland mollusc collecting and man-made huts, suggesting a flourishing coastal maritime lifestyle.
The arrival of the Neolithic, a time period measured in milennia, signalled the transition from a hunter-gatherer to a progressively agrarian and ranching lifestyle with permanent dwellings. This monumental, evolutionary change began with formation of the largest rivers in Asia and the Nile in Africa caused by climate change during the Holocene. This extensive period marked such a significant transformation in human history that in order to characterise it appropriately, it is referred to as the "Neolithic Revolution". With this change, came a sedentary lifestyle, architecture, social hierarchies, religions, and technological innovations.
According to diffusion theories, these lifestyle changes were brought to the Iberian Peninsula from the Eastern Mediterranean. However, to adherents of autochthonous theories, the changes occurred naturally in response to the evolution of the Mesolithic on the Iberian Peninsula. One theory asserts that there were four regions along the Peninsula: Northeast Area, Levantine Area, Southern Area and South Atlantic Area, as can be seen on The Neolithic map. Another theory suggests it had logically spread throughout the entire Iberian Peninsula. History tells us that even when a theory becomes difficult to dispute, other theories cannot be ruled out.
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Artistic expression from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic
It was not until 12,000-10,000 BC, that Homo sapiens realised their full artistic potential. Evidence of this resides on the East coast of the Iberian Peninsula where more modest, schematic and stylised paintings than those from the Palaeolithic were developed. As contours of discontinuous lines, the figures lack interior polychromy and are smaller in size. Human beings and animals on which they preyed were the centre piece of the art, often depicted in motion and in scenes that tell a story. These paintings were now displayed in rock shelter rather than caves, undoubtedly reflecting the change to a sedentary lifestyle. Well-preserved examples of such art can be found at the Cogull, Valltorta, and Alpera sites as well as in cueva de la Araña. Like the art in the Franco-Cantabrian region, these images were found on parietal walls throughout the Peninsula, frequently comingled with paintings and engravings from later periods. They were concentrated in three large areas: the Galician-Portuguese region, the south, and most commonly, along the East coast, so prevalent in this area that it is often referred to as “Levantine Art”. Characterised by their labyrinth-shaped designs, the petroglyphs in the north and northweast are also worth mentioning, particularly those at Mogor in Marín and the anthropomorphic Ídolo de Peña Tú in Asturias. Engravings and paintings of these types represent a way of communicating that was perhaps a precursor to the first pictograms. |
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The beginning of the use of copper In the beginning of the Third Millennium BC, the use of copper, a new raw material, was becoming widespread throughout Europe. It was relatively abundant on the Peninsula and could be extracted from the ground. This sparked the beginning of the Chalcolithic or Copper Age, the first of the traditionally recognised Metal Ages. Awls, hooks, flat axes, knives, daggers, halberds, personalised adornments made from copper appeared. Bone and stone were gradually replaced by copper, which led to new manufacturing techniques as well as new ways of living. Fortified settlements were now being constructed high up on plateaus. The most notable examples of this were the culture of Los Millares and subsequently, the Argar (Almeria) and Zambujal in Torres Vedras (Portugal), which were the most magnificent architectural settlements on the Chalcolithic Iberian Peninsula. However, most communities were still typically found in the flatlands (particularly on river terraces and in valleys), which were more suitable for farming or raising livestock. Excavations at these sites have unearthed grain stores, landfills, store rooms, ditches and pits at these sites dating from this same time period. These societies also left behind an extensive fields of ring-diches which served as storage pits, particularly at les Jovades en Concentaina site, in Alicante and at the Ventorro site in Madrid. Notable exceptions to the settlements on the plains were those in caves or rock shelter such as the cova des Moro in Manacor (Mallorca) or cova des Fum in Formentera or Estremera in Madrid. Collective burying of their dead and the construction of megalithic burial chambers typical of the Late Neolithic continued to be common in the southeast, southwest, Northern Plateau and northwest of the Peninsula. These customs endured until the introduction of bell-shaped ceramic pots, which then allowed them to bury just a single individual. Despite regional variations in dating and definitively describing the period known as the Copper Age, it can be roughly classified into two periods: the Early Chalcolithic, dating from the first half of the Third Millennium (starting in 2250 BC) and the Late Chalcolithic, occurring from 2250 BC to 1900 BC. In the latter period, new ceramic pots began to appear in communities throughout Europe, allowing for more efficient preservation, storage, and transportation of goods. They were made by hand, generally with red clay, in an inverted bell shape, and then elaborately decorated with horizontal bands containing geometric or shell-shaped patterns, impressed or cut with combs or cords, and sometimes glazed. On the Peninsula, this pottery was initially decorated with international designs, referred to as Maritime, Corded or Mixed (2200-2150 BC), but later, a diverse array of regional designs appeared. |
Co-authorship of the text in Spanish: María Sánchez Agustí, José Antonio Álvarez Castrillón, Mercedes de la Calle Carracedo, Daniel Galván Desvaux, Joaquín García Andrés, Isidoro González Gallego, Montserrat León Guerrero, Esther López Torres, Carlos Lozano Ruiz, Ignacio Martín Jiménez, Rosendo Martínez Rodríguez, Rafael de Miguel González. See the list of members engaged
Experimentation with metallurgy: the Bronze Age
In the Second Millennium BC, population growth created a greater demand for raw materials and subsistence products, causing agricultural and livestock farming (and its by-products) to become more widespread. This still Neolithic society had already mastered metallurgical techniques and had discovered bronze, a strong alloy of copper and tin. Bronze arrived on the Peninsula through the Pyrenees in the Third Millennium BC and was used along with copper to make tools and objects, according to stratigraphic studies of the Bauma del Serrat del Pont site (Girona).
Trade increased during the Early Bronze Age and there are strong indications that society was becoming increasingly socially stratified. This was evidenced by the discovery of burial sites for single individuals (mainly in burial pits and megalithic cists) as well as by differences in the quality and quantity of funerary objects placed in these sites. The Argar culture, which succeeded the bell-shaped ceramic, and produced a wide range of ceramic objects, was no longer the only flourishing culture on the Peninsula, according to research carried out in the last 50 years. The Bronze Age map shows the emergence of a diversity of cultures chronologically beginning with the Protocogota settlements on the Nothern Plateau around 2000 BC.
The late Bronze Age began around the 11th century BC with three different cultural currents predominating: Central European, Atlantic, and Eastern Mediterranean. With an increase in cultural exchanges, these civilisations mixed with native cultures, eventually evolving into what are known as Pre-Roman cultures. Major changes took place and new traditions arose. In the Northwest, they began to cremate their dead and leave their ashes in urnfields, while in the middle of the Peninsula and in the northern and western regions, highly sophisticated bronze weapons and objects were commercially traded. And lastly, merchants and new cultural groups arose in the Mediterranean and southern regions of the Peninsula, foreshadowing the future colonisation of these areas. Meanwhile, advances in metallurgy led to the development of goldsmithing, as evidenced by the Treasure of Villena (Alicante). Livestock routes stretching inland were also built, as revealed at some excavation sites such as Peña Negra in Crevillent (Alicante). These external influences did not, however, impede indigenous development. Examples of this can be seen from the Cogotas culture, which extended to the Douro and Tagus river basins starting in the 11th century BC, as well as from the Talayotic culture on the Balearic Islands at the end of the Naviform period.
During this period emerge control walkway in livestock routes, water points, mountain passes or river fords as the Tagus River Trail. Metallurgical production sites were built to the north of the Tagus River in Portugal and along the Tinto-Odiel estuary, home to the Tartessian Civilisation during the 10th and 11th centuries BC. By the 8th century BC The Atlantic metallurgy was predominant on the entire Iberian Peninsula, especially at settlements in fertile and grassy areas along the river plains. Such settlements were frequently left open and unprotected, but at other times, built inside walled enclosures. Phoenician merchants began to appear on the coasts around this precolonial period, and later, towards the end of the 7th century BC, the Greeks.
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Co-authorship of the text in Spanish: María Sánchez Agustí, José Antonio Álvarez Castrillón, Mercedes de la Calle Carracedo, Daniel Galván Desvaux, Joaquín García Andrés, Isidoro González Gallego, Montserrat León Guerrero, Esther López Torres, Carlos Lozano Ruiz, Ignacio Martín Jiménez, Rosendo Martínez Rodríguez, Rafael de Miguel González. See the list of members engaged
A prelude to societal and territorial reorganisation: the Iron Age
The use of this new metal technology, which required furnaces capable of reaching extremely high temperatures, did not spread homogenously throughout the Peninsula. Iron-making first began on the coastline in the middle of the 8th century BC by such predominant protohistoric cultures as the Tartessos while inland civilisations continued to work with bronze and were slower to adopt this new technology. These diverse regional differences (evident at some archaeological sites) led to transformations in how these societies were organised throughout the territory, signalling that the Iberian people were entering into a new era (known as ancient history) and leaving Prehistory behind.
This long epoch known as the Iron Age is conventionally divided into two stages: the Early Iron Age (750 BC - 500 BC) and the Late Iron Age (500 BC - 200 BC, as illustrated in the maps of the same tittle.
The Early Iron Age is characterised by two large civilisations occupying two distinct Iberian geographical regions: one in the south and the other, in the east of the Peninsula. The accepted notion that these civilisations were influenced by Mediterranean cultures is supported by the discovery of Protocolonial remnants on the east coast. There is also evidence of Phoenician colonisations in the Southern Mediterranean and Atlantic (Gadir) regions and of the first Greek colonies, including those established by groups under Greek influence. Moreover, there were the great Tartessian settlements in Andalusia, particularly along the Tinto, Odiel and Lower Guadalquivir rivers.
In the north and middle of the Peninsula, the communities remained isolated from Mediterranean influences and retained their indigenous identity and traditions (including, in some cases, the use of bronze). Such behaviour was exhibited by the Late Burial Urnfields Culture (Catalonia and the Ebro Valley), Sorian hillforts culture, the Atlantic Cultures (Portugal, Galicia, and the Cantabrian Cornice), in addition to the Soto de Medinilla culture in the Douro river basin.
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Co-authorship of the text in Spanish: María Sánchez Agustí, José Antonio Álvarez Castrillón, Mercedes de la Calle Carracedo, Daniel Galván Desvaux, Joaquín García Andrés, Isidoro González Gallego, Montserrat León Guerrero, Esther López Torres, Carlos Lozano Ruiz, Ignacio Martín Jiménez, Rosendo Martínez Rodríguez, Rafael de Miguel González. See the list of members engaged
Cultural areas and Pre-Roman civilisation
During the Early Iron Age (or Iron Age I), despite the peculiarities of the individual communities located on the Peninsula, these groups shared a common culture with its own customs and traditions, which they managed to sustain even in the face of constant influences from the outside world. Asian influences were felt on the Andalusian, southeastern and eastern coasts, slowly spreading to the farthest stretches of the Peninsula, even to areas difficult to access from the coastlines.
Archaeological evidence regarding early Phoenician presence on the Peninsula reveals they had already started establishing commercial contacts in the area before the 8th century BC or precolonial era. As the Phoenicians began to permanently settle in the southwestern reaches of the territory and gain control of this area sometime after the 7th century BC, close trading relations were gradually developed with the Punic cities of the Near East and Northern Africa. A network of commercial trading routes was established. Their products were exported from their Metropoli to the Iberian Peninsula through developing markets on the Iberian coasts, expanding into the interior.
The colonisations of the areas around Huelva and the Lower Guadalquivir facilitated the growth of the Tartessian culture (it has been spoken about the kingdom of the Tartessos and even about some of its kings) in the Early Iron Age or Iron Age I. This historical and cultural development featured profound changes in the region's indigenous societies. In the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age I, they transitioned to mining and exploiting the land in the Guadalquivir valley for agricultural purposes, making necessary frequent exchanges and other forms of social interactions. Growing cultural, social and economic influences from the Eastern Mediterranean were becoming evident in these communities. This phenomenon is both evidenced by and attributable to the importation of ceramics, objects made of precious metals, fabrics, oil, and wine.
The Tartessian civilisation, initially limited to the areas along the Tinto, Odiel and lower Guadalquivir rivers, as can be seen on the map Early Iron Age, expanded throughout the southern reaches of the Peninsula to the mouths of the Guadiana and Segura Rivers. The influence of the Tartessian culture had also spanned the southeastern part of the Peninsula, the southern eastern region, the southern coast of Portugal and the interior of Andalusia. Remnants of a Tartessian capital, or of a cultural epicentre have yet to be found despite a tireless search by archaeologists.
Meanwhile, the centre of the Peninsula was much slower to adapt to the technological changes taking place, and as a consequence, its populations did not experience the same level of growth and prosperity as their counterparts in the south. The central territory eventually began to be populated by small fortified villages. An example of this is the Soto de Medinilla culture (which is named after the most thoroughly studied settlement in Valladolid) in the Douro Valley.
By the Iron Age II (500 BC, many years before Romanisation), the use of iron was widespread throughout the Peninsula, greatly increasing the number and variety of available tools. At the same time, new social and economic structures arose on the Peninsula, built on foundations laid from the peoples of the previous era. These cultural and territorial changes were described by Greco-Latin writers, particularly by Pliny and Strabo. The process of acculturation initiated subsequently by Rome was influenced by these Iberian developments.
Historians and archaeologists have pointed out the difficulty of linking the data from material remains to information provided by historiographic or literary sources because the information is often confusing and contradictory. Nevertheless, the field of archaeology is making a concerted effort to identify the geographic distribution of Pre-Roman communities based on data obtained from research, as illustrated on the map Late Iron Age. Pre-Roman peoples.
The map shows the location of the major archaeological settlement sites identified on the Iberian Peninsula compared to the areas traditionally ascribed to the principle ethnic groups in archaeological literature. This map and its associated information, should be read and interpreted recognising that the borders of the areas occupied by these population groups are generally loosely defined since there were constant social and economic interactions between their respective populations. As a consequence of such interaction over the centuries, these areas were constantly expanding and contracting over the centuries, inevitably producing border uncertainty. The Lusitanian and Veton population groups are examples of this.
In the south and east, the influence of Colonial Greek acculturation on pre-existing populations varying in social status, led to the eventual establishment of a unified Iberian culture, made up of different groups such as the Turdetani, Bastetani, Oretani, Turduli, Contestani, Edetani, Ilercaones, Ilergetae, Cessetani, Laietani, Indiketes and Sedetani. Its preponderance in the Peninsula (not in vain named Iberian), is explained by its intense commercial activity, the refinement of agricultural techniques, and its specialization in typically Mediterranean crops (cereals, vines, olive trees), as well as by the development of specialized iron metallurgy and the growth of its population, which gives the entire Mediterranean coastline a higher population density. Their acts of worship and funerary rituals (cremation) reveal a well-structured social hierarchy and a more advanced society. With the introduction of palatial sistem, the peoples of this Iberian culture began the process of urbanisation. They produced important works of art like The Ladies (damas) of Elche (Alicante), Baza (Granada), Guardamar (Cabezo Lucero, Alicante) and Cerro de los Santos (a lost sanctuary near Yecla). They also created high quality metal works of gold and silver, as can be seen by treasures found at Jávea (Alicante) and at Cástulo and Linares (Jaén). Moreover, they had an alphabet, albeit not fully unravelled which spread to the south of France and was used until it was replaced, during the period of Romanisation, by the Latin language and alphabet.
The rest of the Peninsula reflected a conglomeration of indo-European-rooted peoples some more influenced by the Celts than others. There were those on the Plateau: Celtiberi, Vaccaei and, Vettones; on the Atlantic coast: Celtici of the southwest, Lusitani and Callaeci (Northwest hillforts groups); and in the north, Astures, Cantabri, Autrigones, Varduli, Caristii and Berones. The Vascones located in the Navarran Pyrenees, were also in the north.
The most recent research on the geographical distribution of the population on the Iberian Peninsula during the Iron Age II shows an overall gradual population increase throughout the territory attributable to the expansion of walled settlements (where population tended to concentrate), although the growth varied from region to region. Many of these communities arose starting in the 2nd century BC with the creation of Oppida, authenthic urban centres with administrative functions and territorial power. These Oppida eventually became civitates with the Roman occupation of the Peninsula. Life was pastoral and reliant on subsistence farming, primarily involving dried grains, particularly in the Douro and Ebro river basins. There were notable developments in ceramics and metallurgy (particularly for weapons, fibulas, and bracelets) and in the growth and expansion of commercial trade. Noteworthy examples evidencing significant artistic advancement include rock sculptures of boars made (verracos) by the Vetton culture and the monolithic stone discs of the Cantabrian stela.
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